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role as a “concentrator,”
    helping his subject get into the right
    Franz Mesmer induced trance
    state of mind. In On The Cause
    through the application of magnets,
    of Lucid Sleep , he describes his
    often to the stomach. These were said
    method: “After selecting subjects
    to bring the body’s “animal” magnetism
    with the right aptitude, I ask them
    back into a harmonious state.
    to relax in a chair, shut their eyes,
    concentrate their attention, and
    surgeon James Braid, from the
    Jean-Martin Charcot began to use
    think about sleep. As they quietly
    Greek hypnos , meaning “sleep”
    hypnotism systematically in the
    await further instructions,
    and osis meaning “condition.” Braid
    treatment of traumatic hysteria.
    I gently or commandingly say:
    concluded that hypnosis is not a
    This brought hypnosis to the
    ‘ Dormez !’ (Sleep!) and they fall
    type of sleep but a concentration
    attention of Josef Breuer and
    into lucid sleep”.
    on a single idea, resulting in
    Sigmund Freud, who were to
    It was from Faria’s lucid sleep
    heightened suggestibility. After his
    question the drive behind the
    that the term “hypnosis” was
    death, interest in hypnosis largely
    hypnotic self, and discover the
    coined in 1843 by the Scottish
    waned until the French neurologist
    power of the unconscious. ■
    Abbé Faria
    Born in Portuguese Goa, José
    could so quickly alter his state
    Custódio de Faria was the son of
    of mind. He moved to France,
    a wealthy heiress, but his parents
    where he played a prominent
    separated when he was 15.
    part in the French Revolution
    Armed with introductions to the
    and refined his techniques of
    Portuguese court, Faria and his
    self-suggestion while imprisoned.
    father traveled to Portugal where
    Faria became a professor of
    both trained as priests. On one
    philosophy, but his theater
    occasion, the young Faria was
    shows demonstrating “lucid
    asked by the queen to preach in
    sleep” undercut his reputation;
    her private chapel. During the
    when he died of a stroke in 1819
    sermon, he panicked, but his
    he was buried in an unmarked
    father whispered, “They are all
    grave in Montmartre, Paris.
    men of straw—cut the straw!”
    Faria immediately lost his fear and
    Key work
    preached fluently; he later
    wondered how a simple phrase
    1819 On the Cause of Lucid Sleep

    24
    CONCEPTS BECOME
    FORCES WHEN THEY
    RESIST ONE ANOTHER
    JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERBART (1776–1841)
    IN CONTEXT
    Experiences and sensations
    APPROACH
    combine to form ideas .
    Structuralism
    BEFORE
    1704 German philosopher
    Gottfried Leibniz discusses
    Dissimilar ideas resist
    petites perceptions (perceptions
    Similar ideas can
    one another and become
    coexist or combine .
    without consciousness) in his
    forces in conflict.
    New Essays on Human
    Understanding.
    1869 German philosopher
    One idea is forced
    Eduard von Hartmann
    to become favored
    publishes his widely read
    over another.
    Philosophy of the Unconscious.
    AFTER
    1895 Sigmund Freud and
    The unfavored idea leaves
    Josef Breuer publish Studies
    The favored idea stays
    consciousness; it becomes
    on Hysteria , introducing
    in consciousness .
    an unconscious idea .
    psychoanalysis and its
    theories of the unconscious.
    1912 Carl Jung writes The
    Psychology of the Unconscious ,
    suggesting that all people have
    a culturally specific collective
    J ohann Herbart was a German the mind must use some kind of
    philosopher who wanted to
    system for differentiating and
    investigate how the mind
    storing ideas. He also wanted to
    works—in particular, how it
    account for the fact that although
    unconscious.
    manages ideas or concepts. Given
    ideas exist forever (Herbart thought
    that we each have a huge number of
    them incapable of being destroyed),
    ideas over the course of our lifetime,
    some seem to exist beyond our
    how do we not become increasingly
    conscious awareness. The 18th-
    confused? It seemed to Herbart that
    century German philosopher

    PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS 25
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