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strips, as a protection against sword blows and wear and tear. The center of the shield was fixed with an iron or bronze boss, to which the handle was attached on the reverse side. The boss could deflect the blows of swords, javelins and stones. [Poly., VI , 23]
    On to the leather surface of the shield was painted the emblem of the legion to which the owner belonged. Vegetius, writing at the end of the fourth century, said that “every cohort had its shields painted in a manner peculiar to itself.” [Vege., MIR , II ] While Vegetius was talking in the past tense, several examples suggest that each cohort of the Praetorian Guard may have used different thunderbolt emblems on their shields. The shield was always carried on the left arm in battle, with a strap over the arm taking much of the weight. On the march, it was protected from the elements with a leather cover, and slung over the legionary’s left shoulder. By the third century, the legionary shield had become oval, and much less convex.
    XI. LEGIONARY TRAINING
    First-century Jewish general and historian Flavius Josephus described the training of Rome’s legions as bloodless battles, and their battles as bloody drills. “Every soldier is exercised every day,” he said, “which is why they bear the fatigue of battles so easily.” [Jos., JW , 3, 5, 1]
    The legionary’s training officer was his optio , who ensured that his men trained and exercised. The Roman soldier’s sword training involved long hours at wooden posts. He was taught to thrust, not cut, using the sharp point of his sword. “A stab,” said Vegetius, “although it penetrates just 2 inches [5 centimeters], is generally fatal.” [Vege., MIR , I ]
    A legionary also learned to march in formation, and to deploy in various infantry maneuvers. In standard battle formation soldiers would form up in ranks of eight men deep by ten wide, with a gap of 3 feet (1 meter) between each legionary, who, in the opening stage of a battle, would launch first his javelins then draw his sword. Withdrawing auxiliaries could pass through the gaps in the ranks, until, on command, the legionaries closed ranks. In close order, compacted against his nearest comrades, the legionary could link his shield with his neighbor’s for increased protection. His century might run to the attack, or steadily advance at the march.
    In battle order, the century’s centurion was the first man on the left of the first rank. The century’s tesserarius was last on the left in the rear rank, while the optio stood at the extreme right in the rear rank, from where it was his task to keep the century in order and to prevent desertions. Basic battle formations included the straight line, oblique and crescent. For defense against cavalry, the wedge or a stationary hollow square would be employed, or a partial hollow square with the men on three sides facing outward while the tightly packed formation continued to shuffle forward. The orbis , or ring, was a formation of last resort for a surrounded force.
    Apart from route marches, legionaries, from the time of the consul Marius, were also trained to run considerable distances carrying full equipment. In addition, the legionary learned defensive and offensive techniques, and to rally round his unit’s standard, or any standard in an emergency. The famous testudo , or tortoise, involved locked shields over heads and at sides, providing protection from a rain of spears, arrows, stones, etc. The testudo, “most often square but sometimes rounded or oblong,” was primarily used when legions were trying to undermine the walls of enemy fortresses, or to force a gate. [Arr., TH , II ] Double testudos are also known, with one group of men standing on the raised shields of a formation beneath them and in turn fixing their shields over their own heads.
    XII. LEGIONARY RATIONS AND DIET
    Cassius Dio wrote of the diet of legionaries: “They require kneaded bread and wine and oil.” [Dio, LXII , 5]