A Ton of Crap Read Online Free PDF

called the quipu. This was not a calculator used to add or subtract, but rather a storage device used to record. It is this use of the quipu that allowed the Incas to successfully create roads, sophisticated agriculture, administration, and textile designs. The tool was made entirely of strings that were then tied into knots. Each knot represented a number, with a positional base ten representation, a system that we still use to this day.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
    Neurons The nervous system works via nerve cells, or neurons. These cells process and transmit information through chemical and electrical signaling. What makes neurons different from other cells is that they have very specialized extensions called axons and dendrites. Dendrites receive the information, and the axon carries the message to target cells.
FRENCH
    French Consonants French consonants are pronounced similarly to the way they are in English. However, there are two major exceptions. Consonants at the end of a word (except
c
,
r
,
f
, and
l
) are not pronounced, and unlike in English, you are not supposed to linger on consonants. They should be short and quick, so that you can move on to the next vowel. The letter
r
is also pronounced from the back of your throat.
LESSON 3C
ANCIENT EGYPT
    The Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom refers to the rule of the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty from 2686 to 2181 b.c. This is a time defined by a flourishing economy, a well-defined justice system, and a strong government. It is during this time that the famous pyramids of Giza were built, marking great artistic and technological advancements. A new class of educated scribes also arose.
COMPOSITION
    Modifiers A modifier is any word, clause, or phrase that adds meaning to another word or part of a sentence. There are two types of modifiers, pre-modifiers and post-modifiers. The head is any word that determines the nature of the sentence. A pre-modifier goes before the head, and a post-modifier goes after the head. For example, “history book,” is an example of a pre-modifier, and “A book on history” is an example of a post-modifier.
INCA MATHEMATICS
    How the Quipu Works The quipu was used in a truly ingenious way. The knots placed on the string were put in different positions representing the base ten counting system. Knots near the end of the string represented the digits. A space followed by more knots represented the tens. If another space was left and then followed by more knots, this represented the hundreds, and so on. For example, to represent the number 246 on the quipu, there would be six knots, a space, then four knots, a space, and then two knots.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
    The Central Nervous System The central nervous system consists of two of the most important parts of the nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is considered to be the command center of the nervous system, since it controls all of the workings of your body. The central nervous system collaborates with the peripheral nervous system in controlling the behavior of the body.
FRENCH
    French Vowels Unlike consonants, French vowels are pronounced differently than they are in English. Vowels do not form diphthongs like in English. Instead of closing the vowel with a “y” or “w” sound, the vowels stay constant, and the tongue remains tense while pronouncing them. The letters
a
,
o
, and
u
are hard vowels, and
e
and
i
are soft vowels. When followed by
m
or
n
, vowels sound nasal, meaning that when pronouncing them, air escapes both the mouth and the nose.
LESSON 3D
ANCIENT EGYPT
    The Middle Kingdom The central government of the Old Kingdom collapsed in 2160 b.c., and around 2055 b.c., the prosperity and stability of Egypt was restored when Mentuhotep II came to power beginning what is known as the Middle Kingdom. Once again, art, literature, and great monuments defined this period. One stark contrast between the art of this time and that of the Old Kingdom, is that this work focused more